Matriarchy and India

Indian mythology is replete with numerous stories of the power and strength of women protagonists. Therefore, it is common to see the worship of goddesses and a deep reverence for female deities through grand rituals and festivals. Sadly, this symbolic power in the religious realm does not translate into respect and reverence for women in society [1]. This contradiction raises a crucial question: If female power is so deeply ingrained in cultural narratives, why does patriarchy continue to dominate? This contradiction led me to explore whether a matriarchal structure ever existed in India. 

There is no conclusive answer to this, mostly because matriarchy is associated with early history, and evidence of it having existed and preceded patriarchy is uncertain.  The idea that patriarchy was a natural progression from early social structures has been increasingly challenged by feminist scholars, who argue that past societies where women may have held significant power have been erased or minimized in historical records.  It has been suggested that in prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies, women played a key role in settlement decisions and food distribution, both of which were vital for survival and social influence. While men often took on hunting, recent archaeological findings challenge the notion that hunting was an exclusively male activity, suggesting that women also participated. 

As societies transitioned from nomadic lifestyles to settled agricultural communities, the shift in resource control played a crucial role in reshaping social hierarchies. As land ownership, inheritance, and economic control became central to society, power increasingly concentrated in the hands of men. This shift was not merely a biological or functional inevitability but was reinforced by emerging social norms that favoured male dominance, gradually institutionalizing patriarchy. 

In India, colonial rule had a profound impact on the country’s social structures, including gender roles. British colonialism introduced Western Victorian ideals that reinforced male dominance and imposed rigid divisions between public and private spheres, effectively relegating women to the domestic realm. Colonial legal systems, including those concerning inheritance and property rights, reinforced patrilineal norms. While some colonial policies helped challenge oppressive practices, they also undermined the cultural and economic roles women historically held. 

Economic shifts play a crucial role in the evolution of gender dynamics, especially in societies where women historically controlled key economic resources. In many indigenous and tribal communities, women managed agricultural land, livestock, and trade networks, which gave them substantial economic and social power. However, with the rise of colonialism and capitalist economies, control over these resources increasingly passed into the hands of men. As markets and industries became male-dominated, women’s economic autonomy diminished, and patriarchal power structures intensified. And thus, patriarchy permeated through the ages to all societies, except for a few. Some communities still today follow matriarchal systems. Let us look at some of the matriarchal communities specifically inhabiting India.

The Khasi people, residing in Meghalaya, are one of India's largest matrilineal societies. In this community, lineage and inheritance are traced through the mother. Children bear their mother's surname, property is typically passed on to the youngest daughter, and husbands move to their wives' place after marriage [2]. Also from Meghalaya, the Garo tribe follows matrilineal traditions similar to the Khasi. Inheritance is passed through the female line, with the youngest daughter, known as the 'nokna,' inheriting ancestral property [3]. The Garasia tribe, indigenous to regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan, practices some customs that empower women in some aspects. One notable practice is the tradition of live-in relationships, known as 'dapa'. In this arrangement, young women actively participate in choosing their partners during community fairs. Couples often cohabit and have children before formalizing their union through marriage, which typically occurs once they have accumulated sufficient financial resources. This practice grants women a degree of autonomy in selecting their partners and determining the progression of their relationships. In Lakshadweep, particularly in Minicoy, matriarchy remains deeply embedded, with women initiating marriage proposals and the groom providing gifts for the bride during marriage. Their society is distinguished by a matrilineal and matrilocal structure, where lineage and inheritance are traced through the female line, and husbands typically reside with their wives' families after marriage. It presents a unique blend of matrilineal traditions and Islamic practices [4]. Similarly, the Nairs of Kerala practiced 'Marumakkathayam', a matrilineal system where property and family names were inherited through the female line, granting women significant autonomy in marital and economic affairs [3].

While these societies grant women greater autonomy, they do not necessarily render men powerless. In many cases, men continue to hold political or decision-making authority, revealing that power structures are more nuanced than a simple binary of patriarchy versus matriarchy [3]. Additionally, women’s experiences within these systems are shaped by intersecting factors such as caste, class, and region. For instance, in some matrilineal societies, caste hierarchies influence property inheritance, often limiting lower-caste women's access to land and resources despite the broader framework of female lineage. The common consensus among modern anthropologists and sociologists is that true matriarchal societies—where women hold absolute authority over all aspects of society, including governance, economy, and religious institutions—have never existed in human history. However, many feminist scholars challenge this claim, arguing that history has been recorded through a patriarchal lens, systematically erasing or diminishing past social structures where women may have exercised significant authority. The definition of matriarchy as a “hypothetical social system” [5] reflects this bias, as it imposes an absolute standard of female dominance while failing to acknowledge societies that may have operated under more equitable or alternative power dynamics.

Personally, I find these societies inspiring because they challenge the notion that patriarchy is the only viable social model. By offering an alternative approach to power and responsibility distribution, they disrupt predominantly patriarchal norms and highlight the possibility of more balanced systems. Their nuanced structure demonstrates that gender balance is not about reversing roles but about equitable power-sharing. Rather than focusing on replacing one system with another, the emphasis should be on creating frameworks that encourage shared responsibility and equal opportunities. This includes fostering economic and political participation, implementing legal protections, and moving beyond symbolic gestures to meaningful change. True progress lies not in rigid binaries but in embracing more flexible and dynamic structures that allow for a fairer distribution of power and responsibilities across society.

Written by Parvathy Ramachandran and Janaky S. @ThinkHer.

References:

1. https://caravanmagazine.in/excerpts/romila-thapar-essay-india-ancient-matriarchy

2. https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210328-why-some-indians-want-more-mens-rights

3.https://thenewfeminist.co.uk/2023/05/5-matriarchal-societies-in-india-you-might-not-know-about/

4. Panakkal, Abbas, and Nasr M. Arif, eds. Matrilineal, matriarchal, and matrifocal Islam: the world of women-centric Islam. Springer Nature, 2024.

5. https://www.britannica.com/topic/matriarchy