Astrolabes and Afterthoughts: Remembering Mariam al-Asturlabiya

The history of science traditionally focuses on a narrow narrative — one centered on the figure of the “great man”: a lone genius, male and white, who, through insight and intellect, transforms the world. This version of history not only misrepresents the deeply collaborative nature of scientific advancement but also sustains a long legacy of erasure — obscuring the contributions of women, people of color, and entire intellectual traditions beyond the Western world.

During the Islamic Golden Age (which interestingly overlaps the " dark ages" according to Eurocentric history of science), scholars across the Muslim world built a vibrant and rigorous scientific tradition. They analyzed, critiqued, corrected, and expanded the ideas they inherited from Indian, Chinese, Egyptian, and Greek civilizations. This period saw major advances in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and engineering. Innovations such as algebra, surgical instruments, observatories, and complex astronomical devices emerged from this tradition. The contributions of scholars from the Arabic-speaking world and other regions across Central and West Asia — even those that laid essential groundwork for later European developments — are often left unacknowledged. Astronomical models devised by figures such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Ibn Shatir, for example, were extensively drawn upon by Copernicus, yet their names rarely appear in textbooks that follow the Western tradition of knowledge. This absence is not incidental; it reflects a broader narrative that centers Europe as the sole engine of scientific progress while systematically overlooking the achievements of other cultures.

Within this intellectual flourishing, although they faced social and institutional barriers, Muslim women did participate in scholarly activities — as copyists, educators, patrons, and, in rare cases, scientists and engineers. Contrary to the assumption that Muslim women were wholly excluded from public and scientific life, historical evidence points to a more complex reality. It is within this broader historical and cultural context that we turn to Mariam al-Asturlabiya al-Ijliya, a 10th-century instrument maker in Aleppo. Her expertise in astronomical horology — the design and construction of precise instruments for measuring time and the positions of celestial bodies — reflects both the intellectual rigor of the period and the often-overlooked participation of colored women in scientific practice.

According to the 10th-century biographer Ibn al-Nadim, Mariam was born in Syria as the daughter of al-ʿIjliyy al-Asturlabi, a respected maker of astrolabes in the city of Aleppo. However, very little contemporary documentation about her survives, leaving many details of her life and work obscured. No records from her own time refer to her by the name “Mariam”; even her given name is uncertain. “Al-ʿIjliyyah” is simply the feminine form of her father’s name, while “al-Asturlabi” means “the astrolabist,” describing her profession rather than identifying her personally. Her father had apprenticed under Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh Nasṭūlus (the renowned instrument maker credited for the creation of the oldest surviving astrolabe today : 927–928 CE).

The astrolabe itself was an extraordinary achievement of scientific ingenuity. Essentially a two-dimensional model of the sky, it enabled users to determine the positions of the sun and stars, tell the time, measure the height of buildings, and navigate across vast distances. While its origins can be traced to ancient Greece, it was scholars in the Arabic-speaking world who transformed and perfected the instrument, adapting it to new purposes and refining its precision. Beyond their practical uses, astrolabes carried deep cultural and symbolic significance. In cities such as Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordoba, they were often inscribed with poetry, personal dedications, and Hijri dates—interesting evidence of how scientific practice was intertwined with cultural expression and identity.

The design of an astrolabe demanded not only skilled craftsmanship but also a firm command of complex mathematical calculations and precise measurements. Mariam spent much of her childhood observing her father in his workshop. By her teenage years, she progressed from assisting with routine tasks to creating her own designs. Growing up in an intellectually vibrant environment, she developed a mastery of spatial geometry, astronomical calculations, and the delicate metalwork required to build these instruments. Even without formal training in mathematics, she demonstrated a level of skill that impressed scholars and craftsmen alike. Her passion for innovation led her to refine and improve traditional models, making the astrolabe more precise and adaptable to different uses. 

Mariam went on to improve the design of astrolabes specifically to enhance their accuracy and ease of use for timekeeping and navigation. Her innovative approach advanced these practices throughout the region, making precise measurement and orientation more accessible to astronomers, navigators, architects, and scholars. News of her skill eventually reached Sayf al-Dawla, the founder of the Emirate of Aleppo, who reigned from 944 to 967 CE. Recognizing the sophistication of her work, he invited her to join his court where she continued to improve her craft.

In addition, Mariam designed a new straight-line shadow-casting instrument that simplified the process of determining the time from the length of the day. This innovation addressed the shortcomings of older, less accurate devices and reflected her commitment to making astronomical tools more reliable and accessible. She also studied calendars and was involved in supervising the construction of a mosque clock, further demonstrating her range as an innovator and practical scientist.

Mariam's contributions extended far beyond crafting precise instruments. She made several observational discoveries that added to the evolving body of astronomical knowledge in her time. Among her most notable achievements was the observation and recording of a solar altitude during a lunar occultation in May 969, along with the sunset position. Although she did not note the exact time or the altitude angle of her measurements, this record is preserved in a circular 'zīj' fragment, cited in the Adliev collection and later referenced by modern historians. Remarkably, she is the only known astronomer of her era to document a solar altitude during a lunar occultation, though it remains uncertain whether she developed this technique independently or drew on earlier work by Maragha astronomers.

Beyond astronomy, Mariam earned respect as a skilled businesswoman and mentor. She played an active role in promoting artisanship, paying her craftsmen fair wages and encouraging them to develop specialized skills. She also provided opportunities for young apprentices to learn by taking on small tasks before progressing to more complex work. This supportive environment enabled many of her collaborators to advance their craft and reputation. Because much of the instrument-making she oversaw was carried out by men, it is possible that the decision to sign their work with her name was either at her request or as a gesture of homage to her leadership.

Over the centuries, Mariam’s contributions gradually faded from view. Yet traces of her impact remained. Her most famous invention—a refined astrolabe constructed in collaboration with the Yemeni jeweler Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi—was used as late as 1815. This brass instrument, measuring 205 millimeters in diameter, is a testament to the lasting utility of her designs.

In more recent times, her legacy has begun to receive long-overdue recognition. The main-belt asteroid 7060 Al-ʿIjliya, discovered in 1990 at Palomar Observatory by Henry E. Holt, was named in her honor. The naming citation was published in November 2016. She also inspired a character in the award-winning 2015 novel 'Binti' and appeared as a figure in the Netflix series 'Vikings: Valhalla'. The organization 1001 Inventions named her among the extraordinary women of the Islamic Golden Age.

However, understanding Mariam al-Asturlabiya’s life in full remains a challenge. Much of the historical record about her survives only in fragmentary references, and there are likely additional details preserved in manuscripts and archival sources that have yet to be translated, catalogued, or systematically studied. Addressing this imbalance requires a more integrated and global approach that recognizes the value of scientific work across regions, cultures, genders, and religions. Until the resources and commitment are directed toward this broader perspective, our understanding of figures like Mariam—and the many others whose legacies have been neglected—will remain incomplete.

Mariam al-Asturlabiya’s story is a reminder of how easily the contributions of women and non-European cultures can slip into obscurity, and how much  more inclusive and richer our understanding of the past becomes when we strive to recover them. 

Written by Janaky S., edited by Parvathy Ramachandran

References:

1.https://muslimhistorymonth.org/mariam-al-astrulabi-the-10th-century-muslimah-who-shaped-the-stars/

2.https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/mariam-al-astrulabi-a-muslim-woman-behind-the-10th-century-astrolabes-43479

3.https://aithor.com/essay-examples/mariam-al-asturlabi-al-ijliyas-contribution-in-astronomy

4.https://www.americanscientist.org/article/science-across-cultures

5.https://www.icrjournal.org/index.php/icr/article/view/230